The lion (Panthera leo) is one of the four big cats in the genus Panthera and a member of the Felidae family. It is the second-largest living cat after the tiger , [ 4 ] with some males weighing over 250 kg. Wild lions are currently found in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia . A small remnant population is found in northwestern India ; in historical times they were extinct from North Africa , the Middle East and western Asia .
By the late Pleistocene , about 10,000 years ago, lions were the most widespread large land mammals after humans. They were found across much of Africa , much of Eurasia from western Europe to India , and the Americas from the Yukon to Peru . Lions live for 10–14 years in the wild, although they can live over 20 years in captivity. In the wild, males rarely live longer than ten years, as they are often injured in fights with rivals. [ 5 ] They typically inhabit savannas and grasslands , although they can also live in the bush or forest . Lions are generally not social, unlike other cats.
A group of lions, called a pride, consists of related females, cubs, and a small number of males. A group of female lions typically hunts together, preying mostly on large ungulates . Lions are apex predators, although they may feed on scavenging when the opportunity arises. Lions do not usually prey selectively on humans, although some have been observed to become cannibals, seeking to feed on human prey. The lion is a vulnerable species , with its population having declined by possibly 30 to 50 percent over the past two decades across its African range. [ 6 ] Lion numbers are unstable outside designated protected areas and national parks. Although the causes of this decline are not fully understood, habitat loss and conflict with humans are the most likely causes.
Interesting fact: About 5 to 6 children are born from the mating of a lion and a lioness, in which the first child is a lion, the second child is a cheetah, the third child is a tiger and the fourth child is of the leopard species. After this some other species are found which resemble leopards. Its descriptions are found from the Paleolithic period, which include carvings and paintings of Lascaux and Chauvet caves , evidence of it is found in all ancient and medieval cultures where it has been found historically. Its extensive description is found on national flags , in contemporary films and literature , in paintings , sculpture and in literature.
Noun
Many Romance languages have similar names for the lion, derived from the Latin word leo ; [ 7 ] the Ancient Greek word for it is λέων ( leon) . [ 8 ] The Hebrew word lavi (לָבִיא) may also be related, [ 9 ] as may the Ancient Egyptian word rw . [ 10 ] It is one of several species originally described as Felis leo by Linnaeus in his eighteenth century work Systema Naturae . [ 3 ] The phylogenetic component of its scientific designation, Panthera leo , is often taken to be derived from the Greek words pan- ("all") and ther ("beast"), but this may be a folk noun . Although it came into English via literary languages, panthera is probably of East Asian origin, meaning "yellow animal", or "white-yellow animal". [ 11 ]
Taxonomy and evolution
A modern lion skull in Kruger National Park
The oldest lion-like fossil is known from Laeotoli in Tanzania and may be as old as 3.5 million years; some scientists have identified the material as Panthera leo . These records are uncertain and may belong to a region closely related to Panthera . The oldest definite record of Panthera leo in Africa dates to about 2 million years ago. [ 12 ] The lion's closest relatives are the other Panthera species , the tiger , the jaguar , and the leopard . Morphological and genetic studies suggest that the tiger was the first of these more recent species to become distributed. About 1.9 million years ago, the jaguar branched off from the rest of the group, with the common ancestor being the leopard and the lion. The lion and leopard then diverged from each other between 10 and 12.5 million years ago. [ 13 ] Panthera leo itself evolved in Africa between 10 and 8 million years ago, then spread throughout the Holarctic region. [ 14 ] It first appeared in Europe about 700,000 years ago with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis in Isernia , Italy . From this lion derived the cave lion ( Panthera leo spelaea ), which appeared about 300,000 years ago. During the Upper Pleistocene the lion spread to North and South America and evolved into Panthera leo atrox , ( the American lion ). [ 15 ] Lions died out in northern Eurasia and the Americas during the last ice age about 10,000 years ago ; [ 16 ] this may have been secondary to the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna . [ 17 ]
Subspecies
Southwest African lions (Panthera leo bleyenberghi)
Traditionally, twelve recent subspecies of lion have been recognized, the largest of which is the Barbary lion . [ 18 ] The main differences distinguishing these subspecies are the position, presence of the mane, size, and distribution. Because these characters are so subtle and show high individual variation, most of these designations are controversial and possibly invalid; in addition, they often rely on zoo material of unknown origin that has "key but unusual" morphological traits. [ 19 ] Today only eight subspecies are generally accepted, [ 16 ] [ 20 ] all but one of these (the Cape lion, formerly described as Panthera leo melanochaita ) is a subspecies. [ 20 ] Even the remaining seven subspecies may be too numerous; mitochondrial variation in recent African lions is modest, suggesting that all sub-Saharan lions may be considered a single subspecies, possibly divided into two main clades: one west of the Great Rift Valley and one east. The lions of Tsavo in eastern Kenya are genetically closer to those of the Transvaal (South Africa) than to those of the Aberdare Range in western Kenya. [ 21 ] [ 22 ]
recently
Eight Recent subspecies are currently recognised:
P. l. persica ,known as the Asiatic lion or South Asiatic , Persian , or Indian lion , once ranged from Turkey throughout the Middle East , Pakistan , India , and even Bangladesh . However, large groups and daylight activities make them more susceptible to encroachment than tigers or leopards; thereare currently 674 lions in and around the Gir forest of India. [ 23 ]
P. l. leo, also known as the Barbary lion , is extinct in the wild due to overhunting, although a few animals in captivity still exist. It was one of the largest lion subspecies, growing up to 3–3.3 m (10–10.8 ft) tall and weighing over 200 kg (440 lb) for males.[44] Theyfrom Morocco to Egypt . The last Barbary lion was killed in Morocco in 1922. [ 24 ]
P. l. senegalensis, known as the West African lion , is found in West Africa from Senegal to Nigeria .
P. l. azandeica , known as the northeastern Congo lion , is found in northeastern parts of Congo .
P. l. nubica, known as the East African or Masai lion , is found in East Africa, from Ethiopia and Kenya to Tanzania and Mozambique .
P. l. bleyenberghi , known as the South West African or Katanga lion , is found in South West Africa, Namibia , Botswana , Angola , Katanga ( Zaire ), Zambia and Zimbabwe .
P. l. krugeri, known as the Southeast African lion or the Transvaal lion , is found in the Transvaal region of southeastern Africa, including the Kruger National Park .
P. l. melano cata, known as the Cape lion , became extinct in the wild around 1860. Results of mitochondrial DNA research do not support the existence of a separate subspecies. It appears likely that the Cape lion was simply a southern population of the extant P. l. krugeri . [ 20 ]
Prehistoric
Several additional subspecies of lion existed in prehistoric times.
P. l. atrox, also known as the American lion or American cave lion , was widespread in the Americas from Alaska to Peru during the Pleistocene period until about 10,000 years ago . This form and the cave lion were sometimes considered to represent different species, but recent phylogenetic studies indicate that they are, in fact, subspecies of the lion ( Panthera leo ). [ 16 ] It is one of the largest lion subspecies, estimated to have been 1.6–2.5 metres (5–8 ft) long. [ 25 ]
P. l. fossilis, known as the Early Middle Pleistocene European cave lion , evolved about 500,000 years ago; fossils have been found in Germany and Italy . It was larger than today's African lions, reaching sizes comparable to the American cave lion. [ 26 ] [ 16 ]
Cave lion, Chamber of the Felines, Caves of Lascaux
P. l. spelaea, also known as the European cave lion , Eurasian cave lion, or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion, lived in Eurasia between 300,000 and 10,000 years ago. [ 16 ] The species is known from Stone Age cave paintings (one such as this one is shown at right), ivory carvings, and clay figurines, [ 27 ] which suggest that it had prominent ears, a tufted tail, and possibly faint tiger-like stripes, with at least some males having a ruff or primitive mane on their necks. [ 28 ] This illustration depicts a hunting scene. It probably depicts females hunting for a pack, using tactics similar to those of their contemporary relatives, and males are not part of the subject matter.
P. l. vereshchagini, also known as the East Siberian or Beringian cave lion , was found in Yakutia ( Russia ), Alaska ( United States ), and the Yukon Territory ( Canada ). Analysis of the mandible and skull of this lion shows that it was larger than the European cave lion and smaller than the American cave lion, with distinctly different skull proportions. [ 16 ] [ 29 ]
Suspicious
P. l. sinhaleyus , known as the Sri Lanka lion , is believed to have become extinct about 39,000 years ago. It is known only from two teeth recovered from Kuruwita . Based on these teeth, P. Deraniyagala declared the existence of this subspecies in 1939. [ 30 ]
P. l. europaea, known as the European lion , was probably identical to Panthera leo persica or Panthera leo spelaea ; its status as a subspecies is not confirmed. It became extinct around 100 AD due to persecution and overexploitation. It inhabited the Balkans , the Italian Peninsula , southern France and the Iberian Peninsula . It was very popular for hunting among the Romans , Greeks and Macedonians .
P. l. youngi or Panthera youngi evolved about 350,000 years ago. [ 31 ] Its relationship to the extant lion species is unclear and it possibly represents a distinct species.
P. l. maculatus, also known as the marozzi or spotted lion , is sometimes considered a distinct subspecies, but may simply be an offspring of an adult lion with the spotted pattern. If it were a distinct subspecies rather than a small number of individuals with a few coloured spots, it would have been extinct since 1931. One possibility is that itis a natural hybrid of leopard and lion known as the leopon . [ 32 ]
Hybrids
Lions have been known to breed with tigers (mostly the Siberian and Bengal subspecies) to produce hybrids called ligers or tigons . [ 33 ] They have also bred with leopards to produce leopons , [ 34 ] and jaguars to produce jaguars . Marozi is a spotted lion or a natural leopon, while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion-jaguar-leopard hybrid called lijagulep . Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos, but the practice is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation of species and subspecies. In China, hybrid breeding is still carried out in zoos and private zoo collections. Ligers are hybrids between a male lion and a female tiger. [ 35 ] Because a growth-inhibiting gene is absent from a female tiger, a growth-inducing gene is passed on from the male lion; the resulting ligers live longer than either parent. They inherit the physical and behavioural characteristics of both the male and female parent species (spots and stripes on a sandy background). Male ligers are sterile, but female ligers are often fertile. Males have a 50 percent chance of having a mane, but if they develop one, their mane will be modest: about 50 percent of a purebred lion's mane. Ligers are typically between 3.0 and 3.7 m (10 to 12 ft) long and weigh between 360 and 450 kg (800 to 1,000 lb) or more. [ 35 ] A less common tigon is a hybrid between a lioness and a male tiger. [ 36 ]
Physical Properties
During combat with others, the mane (the large hair on the lion's neck) makes the lion appear larger.
The Asiatic lion marks its territory by urinating on trees
The lion is the tallest of all felines (at the shoulder) and the second heaviest feline after the tiger . With powerful legs, a strong jaw , and canine teeth up to 8 cm (3.1 in)[76] long , the lion can drag and kill large prey. [ 37 ] The lion's skull is very similar to that of the tiger, although the frontal region is generally more depressed and flattened and the postorbital region is slightly smaller. The lion's skull has larger nostrils than that of the tiger. However, due to the variation in the skulls between the two species, only the structure of the lower jaw can usually be used as a reliable indicator of species. [ 38 ] Lions also vary widely in colour, ranging from buff, yellow, red, or dark brown. The underparts are usually lighter in colour and the tail tuft is black. Lion cubs are born with brown spots on their bodies, a trait similar to that of a leopard. Although these spots fade as the lion grows into adulthood, faded spots can still be seen on the lower parts and legs, especially in females. The lion is the only member of the cat family that exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism —that is, the male and female look distinctly different. For example, the lioness, the predator, lacks the thick, voluminous mane that the male has. For example, the lioness, the predator, lacks the thick, voluminous mane that the male has. This trait hinders the male's ability to conceal himself when pursuing prey and generates a lot of heat when running. The male's mane ranges in color from saffron to black, generally becoming darker as he ages.
Two lionesses in the Masai Mara, Kenya
The body weight of an adult lion is typically 150–250 kg (330–550 lb) for males and 120–182 kg (264–400 lb) for females. [ 4 ] Nowell and Jackson report a male weighing 181 kg and a female 126 kg; a male near Mount Kenya weighed 272 kg (600 lb). [ 24 ] Lions vary greatly in size, depending on their environment and region, and as a result recorded weights vary widely. For example, lions from southern Africa generally weigh about 5 percent more than those from east Africa. [ 39 ] Head and body length is 170–250 cm (5 ft 7 in – 8 ft 2 in) in males and 140–175 cm (4 ft 7 in – 5 ft 9 in) in females; shoulder height is approximately 123 cm (4 ft) in males and 107 cm (3 ft 6 in) in females. Tail length is 90–105 cm (2 ft 11 in – 3 ft 5 in) in males and 70–100 cm (2 ft 4 in – 3 ft 3 in) in females. [ 4 ] The tallest known lion was a black-maned male shot dead in October 1973 near Muxu, southern Angola ; The heaviest known lion was a man-eater killed in 1936 just outside Hectorspruit in Eastern Transvaal , South Africa , weighing 313 kg (690 lb). [ 40 ] Lions in captivity are larger than their wild counterparts—the heaviest lion on record was a male named Simba at Colchester Zoo in England, weighing 375 kg (826 lb) in 1970. [ 41 ] The most distinctive feature, shared by both males and females, is that the tail ends in a tuft of hair; this tuft includes a hard "spine" or "spur", about 5 millimetres long, formed by the last segment of the tail bone fused together. Lions are the only felid to have a tufted tail—the function of the spine and tuft are unknown. This tuft, absent at birth, develops by about 5½ months of age and becomes readily recognizable by 7 months of age. [ 42 ]
Mane (hair on the neck)
Thermographic image of a lion, showing the mane separately.
The mane of an adult male lion is unique among cats, and is the most distinctive distinguishing feature of the species. It makes the lion appear larger, giving it an imposing appearance; it also aids the lion in combat with other lions and with the species' main competitor, the African spotted hyena .[92] [ 43 ] The presence, absence, colour, and size of the mane are related to genetic makeup, sexual maturity, climate, and testosterone production; as a rule of thumb, the thicker and denser the mane, the healthier the lion. Lionesses prefer males with thicker and darker manes when choosing a mate. [ 44 ] Research in Tanzania also suggests that mane length in male-male interactions signals fighting success. Darker-maned males have longer reproductive lives and an increased chance of survival of their offspring, although they suffer more during the hotter months of the year. [ 45 ] In a pride of two or three males, the female is more likely to actively seek out the male who has the thicker mane. [ 44 ]
A male lion with no neck hair and less body hair - from Tsavo East National Park, Kenya.
Scientists once stated that the distinctive status of some subspecies could be determined by morphology , including the size of the mane. Morphology is used to identify subspecies such as the Barbary lion and the Cape lion . However, research suggests that environmental factors such as ambient temperature affect mane size and colour. [ 45 ] In European and North American zoos, cooler ambient temperatures tend to cause denser manes. Thus, mane is not a suitable marker for subspecies identification. [ 20 ] [ 46 ] However, males of the Asian subspecies are characterized by a thinner mane than the average African lion. [ 47 ] Maneless males have been found in Senegal and Tsavo East National Park in Kenya , and the original white male of Timbavati was also maneless. Castrated lions have minimal manes. The absence of a mane is sometimes found in interbred lion populations; This inbreeding also results in reduced fertility. [ 48 ]
A lioness with a ruff that is sometimes mistaken for a male.
Many lionesses have a ruff which may be obvious in certain situations. It is sometimes pointed out in sculptures, paintings, especially in ancient artwork, and mistaken for a male's mane. It is distinct from a mane, though it is found below the ears at the jaw line, being shorter in length and not readily noticed, whereas a mane extends over the ears of the male, often completely covering their outer line. Cave paintings of extinct European cave lions depict the animals without manes, or only a hint of a mane, suggesting that they were more or less maneless; [ 28 ] however, females hunting for a pack have been the main subject of the paintings—since they are depicted in groups associated with hunting—so these images are not sufficient to conclude that the males had manes. The images suggest that the extinct species used similar social organisation and hunting strategies as contemporary lions.
White Lion
White lions derive their coloration from a recessive gene; they are rare variants of the subspecies Panthera leo krugeri.
White lions are not a distinct subspecies, but a genetic condition, leucism, [ 19 ] which causes a pale colouration that resembles a white tiger; the condition is similar to melanism, which causes black panthers. They are not albinos, having normal pigmentation of the eyes and skin. White Transvaal lions (Panthera leo krugeri) are occasionally encountered in eastern South Africa, in Kruger National Park and the nearby Timbavati Private Game Reserve , but are usually kept in captivity , where breeders select them carefully. Their unusual cream-coloured coat is caused by a recessive gene . [ 49 ] Reportedly, they were bred in camps in southern Africa to be used as trophies during canine hunting . [ 50 ] The existence of white lions was only confirmed in the late 20th century. For hundreds of years, the white lion was thought to be the stuff of legend in southern Africa, with the animal's white fur believed to represent the good in all creatures. Sightings were first reported in the early 1900s and continued sporadically for about 50 years, until in 1975 the remains of a white lion cub were found in the Timbavati Game Reserve. [ 51 ]
Biology and Behavior
Lions spend most of their time resting and are inactive for about 20 hours a day. [ 52 ] Although lions can be active at any time, their activity is generally strongest after dusk when they congregate, form groups, and defecate. Occasional intermittent activity occurs during the night until dawn when hunting is often carried out. They spend on average two hours a day walking and 50 minutes eating. [ 53 ]
Group Organization
Lions are predatory carnivores that display two forms of social organization. Some are resident lions that live in groups called prides . [ 54 ] A pride usually consists of about five or six related females, their cubs of both sexes, and one or two males (called a union if there are more than one ) that mate with an adult female (although very large prides with up to 30 members have been observed). The number of males in a pride is usually two, but can increase to four and then decrease again over time. Male cubs leave their mother's pride when they reach maturity. If a cub touches its mother while she is mating with a male, the female will kill her cub.
A pride marching near Governor's Camp in the Masai Mara, Kenya
The other grouping is called nomadism , which is a group that is widely distributed and moves around irregularly. They may live alone or in pairs, [ 54 ] most commonly seen in pairs of related males that have become separated from their original pride. Note that a lion can change its lifestyle; nomads can become residents and vice versa. Males must go through this lifestyle and some never join a pride. If a female becomes nomadic, it is more difficult for her to join a new pride, as the females in a pride are related and will reject most attempts by unrelated females to join the group. The area occupied by a pride is called the pride area , while a nomad's area is called the range. [ 54 ] Males belonging to a pride prefer to stay in the fringes, patrolling their territory. Why sociality in lionesses - the most pronounced of any cat species - evolved is a matter of debate. There appears to be an obvious reason for increased hunting success, but it is not so certain upon examination: hunting together improves success in the process, but it is also certain that non-hunting members reduce the amount of calorie intake per member, although some play a role in raising cubs, which can be left alone for this extended period of time. Pride members continue to play the same role in regular hunts. The health of the predator is a primary requirement for the survival of the pride and they are the first to consume prey after it is taken to the site. Other benefits include possible kin selection (it is better to share food with a related lion rather than a stranger), protection of young, maintenance of territory, and personal security against injury and hunger.
A lioness running at great speed while being hunted in the Serengeti.
The lioness does most of the hunting for her pride, as she is smaller, more agile and more mobile than the male, and lacks the heavy and distinctive mane that can cause overheating when exhausted. They work cooperatively as a group to chase down and successfully drag down their prey. However, if prey is nearby, once the lioness is successful and has eaten, the male has a tendency to dominate the kill. They share food more often with cubs than with the lioness, but will occasionally share their own kill. Small prey is eaten at the scene, divided between the hunters; when prey is large it is often dragged into pride territory. Larger prey is shared more frequently, [ 55 ] although pride members often engage in aggression towards one another to consume as much food as possible. Males and females defend their prides against intruders. Some members continue to defend against intruders, while others withdraw. [ 56 ] Lions within a pride have specific roles. Members who withdraw may provide other valuable services to the group. [ 57 ] An alternative hypothesis is that there is a reward associated with being a leader, that the leader defends against intruders, and that the lioness's rank in the pride is reflected in these responses. [ 58 ] The male or males within a pride defend their pride against outside males, where outside males are those that attempt to mate with the pride. Females form a permanent social unit within a pride and do not tolerate outside females; [ 59 ] membership changes only at birth or the death of a lioness, [ 60 ] although some females leave the pride and become nomads. [ 61 ] Secondly, sub-adult males must leave the pride when they reach maturity at the age of 2–3 years. [ 61 ]
Hunting and diet
Since a lioness has very sharp teeth, prey is usually killed by strangulation
Lions are powerful animals that usually hunt in coordinated packs and attack their selected prey. However, they are not particularly known for their endurance—for example, a lioness's heart makes up only 0.57 percent of its body weight (a male's is about 0.45 percent), while a hyena's heart is closer to 1 percent of its body weight. [ 60 ] Thus, although lionesses can reach speeds of up to 60 km/h (40 mph),[134 ] they can only do so for short periods, [ 63 ] so they must be very close to their prey before launching an attack. They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility; most hunting occurs at night or under cover. [ 64 ] They charge at a distance of 30 m (98 ft) or less from their prey. They then pounce on it. Typically, several lionesses work together and surround the herd from various points. Once they have approached a herd, they usually target the nearest prey. The attack is short and powerful; they attempt to catch the prey quickly with a very high jump. Prey is usually killed by strangulation , [ 65 ] which may cause cerebral ischemia or asphyxia (resulting in hypoxemic , or 'general' hypoxia ). Prey may also be killed by the lion closing the animal's mouth and nostrils with its claws [ 4 ] (this also causes asphyxia). Smaller prey, however, may be killed with just a swipe of the lion's paw. [ 4 ] The prey consists mainly of large mammals, with a preference for wildebeest , impala , zebra , buffalo and warthog in Africa, and nilgai , wild boar and several deer species in India . Many other species are hunted depending on availability. This mainly includes ungulates weighing 50 to 300 kg (110–660 lb) such as kudu , hartebeest , gemsbok and eland . [ 4 ] Occasionally, they hunt relatively smaller species such as Thomson's gazelle and springcock . NamibLions off the coast of the Gulf of Tonga prey extensively on seals . [ 66 ] When hunting in packs, lions are capable of killing most animals, even healthy adults, but in most parts of their range they rarely attack very large prey, such as fully grown male giraffes , because of the risk of injury.
Seven lions on the side of the road in Masai Mara Park Reserve, Kenya
Detailed data collected by various studies indicate that lions generally prey on mammals in the 190–550 kg (420–1,210 lb) range. Wildebeest are the most commonly taken prey (making up about half of the lion's prey in the Serengeti ), followed by zebras. [ 67 ] Most adult hippopotamuses , rhinoceroses , elephants , and smaller gazelles , impala , and other agile antelopes are not usually taken. However, giraffes and buffalo are often taken in particular areas. For example, in Kruger National Park, giraffes are regularly hunted. [ 68 ] and in the Manyar pack, Cape buffalo make up 62% of the lion's diet, [ 69 ] as buffalo density is high. Hippopotamuses are occasionally hunted, but adult rhinoceroses are generally avoided. Warthogs smaller than 190 kg (420 lb), however, are hunted depending on availability. [ 70 ] In some areas, they become specialized to hunt a typical prey species; this can be seen in the Savuti River, where they prey on elephants. [ 71 ] Park guides in the area report that very hungry lions have dragged off baby elephants, followed by juvenile elephants, and sometimes even full-grown adults at night because of their poor eyesight. [ 72 ] Lions also attack domestic animals; in India cattle form a major part of their diet. [ 47 ] They are also capable of killing other predators, such as leopards , leopards , hyenas , and wild dogs , although (unlike most felids) they rarely finish off competitors after a kill. They may also feed as scavengers, either naturally or by other predators, and constantly keep an eye out for vultures circling around, alert to any signs of a killed or endangered animal. [ 73 ] A lion can eat up to 30 kilograms (66 lb) at a time. [ 74 ] If it is unable to consume all of its dead prey at once, it rests for a few hours before consuming more. On a hot day, a pride retreats to the shade, leaving one or two male members to guard the pride . [ 75 ]An adult lioness requires an average of 5 kilograms (11 lb) of meat per day, and a male requires 7 kilograms (15.4 lb). [ 76 ]
A group of hunters (pride) killing a zebra and sharing it among themselves.
Because lionesses hunt in open areas where they can be easily seen by their prey, cooperative hunting increases the likelihood of a successful hunt; this is particularly true for the larger species. Working together can protect their prey from other predators such as hyenas, which can be attracted to open savannah areas by vultures from several kilometres away. Most of the hunting is done by lionesses; males in a pride do not usually participate in hunting, except for larger prey such as giraffes and buffalo. In a typical hunt, each lioness has a specific position in the group, either catching prey on the wing and then attacking, or moving a short distance to the centre of a group and catching prey flying from the other lionesses. [ 77 ] Young lions display stalking behaviour by the age of three months, although they do not participate in hunts until they are 1 year old. They begin to hunt effectively at around two years of age. [ 78 ]
Reproduction and life cycle
Once mating occurs, a pair may copulate 20 to 40 times per day for several days.
Most lionesses reproduce at the age of four. [ 79 ] Lions do not mate at any particular time of year and females are polyestrous . [ 80 ] Like other cats, male lions have barbs on their penis that curve back. As the barbs are retracted from the penis, they rub against the walls of the female's vagina, causing ovulation. [ 81 ] A lioness may mate with more than one male lion when she is in heat ; [ 82 ] during a mating cycle, which may last several days, the pair may mate twenty to forty times per day and may skip meals.Lions breed very well in captivity. The average gestation period is around 110 days, [ 80 ] The female gives birth to a litter of one to four cubs in a secluded den (which may be a thicket, a reed bed, a cave, or other sheltered area), usually away from the rest of the pride. While the cubs are helpless, she hunts for herself and remains close to the location where the cubs are laid. [ 83 ] The cubs themselves are born blind—their eyes do not open until about a week after birth. They weigh 1.2–2.1 kg (2.6–4.6 lb) at birth. They are nearly helpless, crawling within a day or two of birth and walking at about three weeks. [ 84 ] The lioness will move her cubs by the scruff of the neck to a new den several times a month, doing so to avoid being confined to the same location and being harmed by predators. [ 83 ] The mother usually does not integrate and returns the cubs to the pride until they are six to eight weeks old. [ 85 ] However, they will sometimes return to the pride sooner, particularly when other lionesses have given birth to cubs at the same time. For example, lionesses in a pride often synchronize their reproductive cycles to help grow and nurse young (when the cubs are out of the weaning stage and are separated from their mothers), who may nurse from any or all of the females in the pride. Furthermore, synchronization of births has the advantage that cubs eventually remain about the same size and thus have roughly equal chances of survival. If one lioness gives birth to cubs two months after another,
A pregnant lioness (right)
For example, younger cubs are much smaller than their older siblings and are often overpowered by older cubs at feeding time—with the result that starvation is common among younger cubs. In addition to starvation, cubs face other threats, including predation by jackals, hyenas, leopards, martial eagles, and snakes. Buffalo may even drag cubs from the site where a lioness is protecting them and kill them. In addition, when one or more new males oust the older males from a pride, the victors often kill the younger cubs, [ 86 ] possibly because females do not become reproductive or reproductive until their cubs are mature or die. Overall, about 80 percent of cubs die before the age of two. [ 87 ] When cubs first arrive in a pride, they lack the confidence to confront any adult lion other than their mother. However, they soon integrate into pride life, playing on their own or with the adults. Lionesses with their cubs are tolerant of other lionesses' cubs, while those without cubs are not. Male lions' tolerance of cubs varies—sometimes, a male will patiently allow a cub to play with his tail or mane, while others will growl and chase the cubs away. [ 88 ] They are weaned after six to seven months. Male lions reach maturity at age 3, and have the ability to challenge and replace a male from another pride at age 4. They begin to weaken between ages 10 and 15, [ 89 ] unless they are severely injured defending their pride. (Male lions rarely regain control of a pride once they have been ousted by a rival male.) This leaves a small window for their own offspring to be born and mature. If they are productive when they arrive in a pride, potentially, they can have more cubs that mature before they are replaced.
Male lions are tolerant of differences in cubs. They usually share food more with cubs than with lionesses.
A lioness will often vigorously defend her cubs from outside males, but such attempts are seldom successful. He usually kills all cubs that are under two years old. A lioness is weaker and lighter than a male; success is more likely when three or four mothers take on a male. [ 86 ] Contrary to popular belief, it is not only males who are driven from their prides to become nomads, although most females certainly remain
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